Original Article · English
Diversity and uses of woody forest resources in the eastern part of the Benoué riverbank (north Cameroon)
Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD, CRA-Maroua), BP: 33 Maroua, Cameroon; Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Maroua; P.O Box 814 Maroua, Cameroon
01Abstract
Woody plant resources play a central role in the food, energy, and health needs of rural populations in the Sudano-Sahelian zone, yet they remain increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressure and deforestation. An ethnobotanical study was conducted among the local ethnic groups of the eastern part of the Benoué riverbank (Bibemi and Rey-Bouba districts, North Region, Cameroon) to characterize the diversity and patterns of use of exploited woody plant resources, with a view to identifying priority species for conservation and promotion in agroforestry practices. Surveys were carried out in 20 villages among 328 respondents selected using a non-probabilistic quota method based on gender and age; species use was assessed through the response rate of solicited plant organs. Farmers accounted for 80.45% of respondents, reflecting the predominantly agricultural character of the study area. A total of 72 exploited woody species were recorded, distributed across six main use categories: food (28 species valued for their fruit, 7 for leaves and flowers, and 5 for seeds; cited by 88.22% of respondents), fuelwood and charcoal (28 species; 98.48% of respondents), traditional medicine (38 species, most notably Khaya senegalensis and Faidherbia albida), service wood (26 species), fodder, and handicrafts (32.22% of respondents). These uses draw on a wide range of plant organs, including leaves, roots, fruit, seeds, flowers, wood and bark. Use intensity varied markedly between species and use categories, reflecting differing availability and cultural preference. These findings highlight the diversity and socio-economic importance of woody resources for local livelihoods and underscore the need for targeted conservation of the most heavily exploited species in this zone.
02Author contributions
Conceptualization; Formal analysis; Investigation; Validation; Writing – original draft; Methodology; Writing – review & editing; Data curation; Software
Investigation; Methodology
Software; Visualization; Supervision; Writing – review & editing
Investigation; Formal analysis; Resources
Investigation; Conceptualization; Data curation
Investigation; Visualization; Methodology; Funding acquisition
03Introduction
Human beings have maintained age-old relationships with plants for their various needs (Ezebilo and Mattsson, 2010). In West Africa, because of their multiple uses in food, construction, domestic energy and traditional medicine, plant resources play an important role in the daily lives of rural populations (Theilade et al., 2007; Zerbo et al., 2011; Mangambu et al., 2012). Today, plant formations are undergoing increasing degradation and the sustainable use of plant resources remains a challenge (FAO, 2013). The loss of these resources could lead to a weakening of the local potential and capacity of the communities that depend on them for income and food. Despite the crucial role played by woody species in socio-economic development and in meeting the multiple needs of populations and issues of sustainability, the high rate of deforestation on the African continent remains worrying (FAO, 2012). In this context, it is important to know the state of available plant resources and to determine how they are used by local populations (Singh and Samant, 2009; Vodouhê et al., 2009). There has often been a lack of scientific research initiatives to support the actions of managers. Recent scientific studies have shown that the quantitative ethnobotanical approach is a powerful tool for identifying species with high potential for use in the conservation of plant resources exploited by communities (Amusa et al., 2012; Ahoyo et al., 2017). Several studies have been carried out on useful plants, but they often focus either on a specific species, or on a precise use, or on the socio-cultural value of food plants (Gouwakinnou et al., 2011; Houessou et al., 2012; Koura et al., 2011; Assogba et al., 2017). Given the anthropogenic pressure on useful woody species and their importance in the socio-economic life of populations, it is necessary to explore the diversity of these species and the uses they have for these populations. This study therefore fills such gaps in the specific case of the eastern part of the Benoué riverbank. The objective of this study is to contribute to a better understanding of the woody plant resources exploited by the population living to the east of the Benoué river bank with a view to sustainable management of the woody potential of this zone. Specifically, the study aims to (i) make an inventory of the various woody plant species and their forms of use, (ii) assess the extent to which the various plant organs are used, and (iii) identify the woody species most widely exploited in the study area.
04Materials and methods
2. Materials and methods 2.1 Study area The study was conducted in the eastern part of the Benoué river bank located in the North Region and more precisely covers two Departments, namely the Department of Benoué and the Department of Mayo-Rey (figure 1). It is bordered to the north by the department of Mayo-Louti, to the south by the Adamaoua region, to the east by Chad and Central Africa, and to the west by Nigeria. It is located at latitude 9°04'28.69'' North, longitude 13°45'52.38'' East and altitude 250m. The climate is tropical, of the Sudano-Sahelian type, with a long dry season from October to April and a short rainy season from May to September. Average annual rainfall reaches 956 mm of water in 54 days of rainfall (MINADER, 2014). Temperatures remain high, with an average of 31°C, and maximums reaching 42 to 45°C in April. However, there are major irregularities from one year to the next and even from one month to the next, with temperatures concentrated mainly around August as a result of climate change, the effects of which are being felt as elsewhere on the planet (PDC commune de Bibemi, 2014 and commune de Rey-Bouba 2015). The eastern part of the Benoué riverbank is characterised by the coexistence of agro-pastoral and mining activities. This diversity of socio-economic activities leads to degradation of the vegetation cover in this area. Figure 1: Location map of the study area 2.2 Data collection In order to achieve the objectives of this work, the investigations took place in two districts covering our study area and consisted of ethnobotanical surveys of households and resource users in 20 villages in this area. The villages were selected on the basis of access routes, the presence of plant formations, the ethnic groups present and their activities in the exploitation and marketing of forest products. 2.2.1. Surveys of households and those involved in the exploitation of timber resources Surveys will be carried out among households, local stakeholders and the traditional and administrative authorities of the areas concerned. A total of 2 arrondissements are included in this study, i.e. a total of 20 villages, with 10 villages per arrondissement. The stratified probability sampling method (sex, age) described by (Grangé and Lebart, 1992) was adopted. 2.2.2. Sampling method In the context of this study, as we do not know all the survey units, we cannot use a probability survey and draw samples. We therefore opted for the non-probabilistic quota method. This involved determining the size of the sample and applying a quota to it. In our context, we chose two quotas: gender and age (at least 30 years old). We opted for these two quotas not only because perceptions vary with gender and age, but also because people aged 30 or over are the most likely to give us information by questioning their memory. 2.2.3. Sample size The sample size was determined using the method of SCHWARTZ (2002). It was calculated with a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of plus or minus 5%. With N= sample size per village; Zα = deviation set at 1.96 corresponding to a confidence level of 95%; P = number of households in the village / number of households in the district; Q = 1 - P ; d = margin of error equal to 5%. The proportion of the target mother population is obtained either from the Commune's PDC document or from the chiefs of the target villages, or from INS 2010 data. 2.2.4 Interviews The methodology adopted for the interviews is a participatory approach described by (Sunderland, 1998) and (Guedjé, 2002), which consists of structured and semi-structured interviews with resource users in these zones. The following will be taken into account in this survey: women, who are the main actors in the use of plant products and in the development and management of natural resources; the elderly, who hold information on the development and history of the land. The respondents were interviewed individually on the basis of questionnaires containing identification variables (surname, first names, age, sex, activities, village) and questions relating to the activities practised in connection with vegetation in wooded or non-wooded areas, the perception that the populations have of the forest area and their participation in the management of this area. Questions relating to the exploitation and use of forest products by local people. Specific surveys will be carried out among the administrative authorities. 2.3. Data analysis The response rate or the response of the organs used per type of species (Maregesi et al., 2007) was calculated according to the formula: F = (S/N) *100 Where, F: calculated response rate; S: number of people who gave a positive response (Yes) for the use of the organ concerned; N: total number of people interviewed.
05Results
3. Results and discussion 3.1 Characterisation of stakeholders involved in the exploitation of non-timber forest products. Harvesters refer to the entire village community responsible for gathering and collecting edible products, wood, fodder, etc. in the bushes and fields. These actors are the key elements in the exploitation of non-timber forest products. They are generally those who control the circuit and flow of the distribution of these products. They are of various kinds, depending on the functions they perform in this circuit. Analysis of Figure 2 shows that six players are involved in the exploitation of timber resources in this zone. In Bibemi, as in Rey-Bouba, the main users of non-timber and timber forest products are farmers. They represent 80.45% of those surveyed in the zone. They practise extensive agriculture in all the villages and cultivate several specialisations: maize, cotton, red millet, cowpeas and groundnuts. Livestock farmers represent 08.48% of farmers in the zone, and are the second largest group. Those who make little use of non-timber and timber forest products are traders, resourceful people and civil servants, representing respectively 02.95%, 02.7% and 5.43% of the population surveyed (Figure 4). This situation is understandable in the sense that most of the population surveyed is essentially agricultural, and this helps to feed the locality in particular and the region in general. Wood resources are therefore an additional source of income for farmers. However, in the interests of diversification, there are some who also rely on trade and livestock farming. Figure 2: Operator functions 3.2. Different uses of plant products The results of our surveys show that various products from plant species are exploited by local people and used in different ways depending on their needs. Figure 3 shows that products from plant species are used for several purposes: Food refers to the parts that produce edible products, in particular fruit, leaves, flowers and tubers. This is why 88.22% of our surveys say that various plant species are used for food. The same applies to firewood and charcoal, which accounts for 98.48% of the plant products exploited in the study area, and includes all types of dead wood collected or cut. It is used in the kitchen to cook food, is used to prepare the local beer ("bil-bil"), and is also used to fire bricks made from earth. As for the use of plant species in the pharmacopoeia, the results of our surveys show that all parts of the plant are used to treat various illnesses. Several plant species are used for this purpose. This reflects the importance of plant species in the daily lives of the population, particularly those who do not have sufficient means to afford high-quality hospital treatment. With regard to the use of plant species for handicrafts, 32.22% of the respondents say that certain plant species are used to make pestles, mortars, couscous cookers, animal troughs, axe handles, stools, etc., among other things. Figure 3: Uses made of plant species 3.3 Importance of non-timber and timber forest products for the population 3.3.1. Food use of timber species Exploited fruit species In the eastern part of the Benoué river bank, 28 fruit species whose fruit is appreciated by the local population have been identified. Their use by local people varies and depends on their value and availability. The most popular fruit species are : Adansonia digitata (100.00 ± 0.00%), Balanites aegyptiaca (100.00 ± 0.00%), Diospiros mespiliformis (100.00 ± 0.00%), Ficus platiphylla (100.00 ± 0.00%), Mangifera indica (100.00 ± 0.00%), Psidium gojava (100.00 ± 0.00%), Tamarindus indica (100, 00 ± 0.00%), Vitex Doniana (100.00 ± 0.00%), Vittelaria paradoxa (100.00 ± 0.00%), Ximenia americana (100.00 ± 0.00%), Ziziphus mauritiana (100.00 ± 0.00%), Ziziphus spina-christi (100%), Annona senegalensis (97.57 ± 1.70%), (table I). Most of these fruits are eaten when ripe, whether fresh, dried, raw, cooked or processed, and consumers come from all social strata. The fruit is also often dried and preserved for later consumption or sale. Consumption of the fruit means that very little agricultural produce is needed to provide food throughout the year. The fruits can be appreciated and exploited for their sweet or sour pulp. Table I: Different edible fruit species, Species names %Bibemi %Rey-Bouba Average/Standard deviation Adansonia digitata 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Balanites aegyptiaca 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Diospiros mespiliformis 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Ficus platifilla 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Mangifera indica 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Psidium gojava 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Tamarindus indica 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Vitex Doniana 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 vittelaria paradoxa 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Ximenia americana 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Ziziphus mauritiana 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Ziziphus spina-christi 100 100 100,00 ± 0,00 Annona senegalensis 96,36 98,77 97,57 ± 1,70 ficus sycomorus 95,76 88,96 92,36 ± 4,81 Parkea biglobossa 93,94 97,55 95,74 ± 2,55 Ficus injens 89,09 90,18 89,64 ± 0,77 Hyphaene thebaica 80,61 60,12 70,36 ± 14,48 Ziziphus mucronata 77,57 74,84 76,20 ± 18,58 Strychnos spinosa 74,55 86,5 80,52 ± 8,46 Sarcephalus latifolus 73,33 58,28 65,81 ± 10,64 Detarium microcarpum, 59,39 82,82 71,11 ± 16,57 Borassus aethiopium 57,58 38,65 48,11 ± 13,38 Hexalobus monopetallus 52,73 47,85 50,29 ± 3,45 Andira inermis 47,27 21,47 34,37 ± 18,24 Sclerocarya birrea 47,27 69,33 58,30 ± 15,59 Hematostaphis barterii 34,55 28,22 31,38 ± 4,47 Gardenia aquala 27,27 21,47 24,37 ± 4,10 Piliostigma reticulatum 20,61 26,38 23,49 ± 4,08 Wild species with edible leaves and flowers Our ethnobotanical survey results show that a total of 7 species are the most sought-after by local people for their leaves and flowers. The leaves of these species, dried or not, are used in traditional cooking for sauces or other purposes (condiments and additives because of their mucilaginous quality). These are: Balanites aegyptiaca (52.71 ± 8.60%), Bombax costatum (38.67 ± 12.17%), Adansonia digitata (67.77 ± 21.28%), Crateva adansonii (23.77 ± 3.24%), Celtis integrifolia (20.74 ± 1.04%), Tamarindus indica (40.55 ± 0.08%), Leptadenia hastata (4.86%), (Table III). People in this area are often faced with a lack of vegetables during the year due to the long dry season. The leaves and flowers of woody species are used to make sauces. It should be noted that the juice obtained from Tamarindus indiça leaves is used as vinegar to give flavour to boiled food when there is a shortage of fruit from this species. Table II : Wild species with edible leaves and flowers Species names Parts consumed % Solicitation Bibemi % Solicitation Rey-Bouba Average/Standard deviation Balanites aegyptiaca Leaves 58,79 46,63 52,71 ± 8,60 Bombax costatum Leaves and Flowers 47,27 30,06 38,67 ± 12,17 Adansonia digitata Leaves 52,73 82,82 67,77 ± 21,28 Crateva adansonii Leaves 26,06 21,47 23,77 ± 3,24 Celtis integrifolia Leaves 20 21,47 20,74 ± 1,04 Tamarindus indica Leaves and flowers 40,61 40,49 40,55 ± 0,08 Leptadenia hastata Leaves 9,7 4,91 7,30 ± 3,39 Exploited seed species The results of the ethnobotanical surveys revealed two different ways of using woody seeds in the zone: eating the seeds raw or prepared, and extracting oil from the seeds. Thus, 5 woody species exploited for their seeds were identified in this zone (Table IV). The seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, locally known as "Pouyadi", are highly appreciated and consumed like groundnuts after cooking, with a solicitation rate of 57.92 ± 2.09%. The same applies to Sclerocarya birrea seeds (23.76 ± 4.97%), which this time are eaten raw. The oil extracted from Azadirachta indica seeds (97.56 ± 0.84%), Balanites aegyptiaca kernels (57.92 ± 2.09%), Vitelaria paradoxa (48.16 ± 3.03%) and Khaya senegalensis (43.63 ± 7.71%) is used in food and as a pharmacopoeia by the local population. Table III : Species whose seeds are used by local populations. Species names Products Bibemi Rey-Bouba Average/Standard deviation Azadirachta indica Oil from seeds 96,97 98,16 97,56 ± 0,84 Balanites aegyptiaca Seeds and oil 59,39 56,44 57,92 ± 2,09 Vitellaria paradoxa Oil from seeds 50,30 46,01 48,16 ± 3,03 Khaya senegalensis Oil from seeds 38,18 49,08 43,63 ± 7,71 Sclerocarya birrea Seeds 27,27 20,25 23,76 ± 4,97 Medicinal uses Table V shows the species used by people in this area in their traditional pharmacopoeia. The 38 medicinal plant species listed in this table show the importance attached to the pharmacopoeia by the people living in this locality. The most commonly used species is Khaya senegalensis (97.25% of respondents), followed by Acacia albida (91%). The high rate of use of these species could be due to their various curative virtues and their availability in the locality. With regard to the districts, it should be noted that rey-bouba (97%) comes first in the use of medicinal species. This could be due to the fact that there are a large number of people involved in the practice of pharmacopoeia who do not have access to modern care, and to the distance of certain villages from the centre. In second place comes the population of the Bibemi district (70%), who make little use of medicinal plants. With a wide range of medicinal plants, everyone is their own therapist and can be cured by the wonders that nature has to offer. A number of illnesses are traditionally treated by people in the districts surveyed, including stomach ache, flu, malaria, coughs, stomach ache, diarrhoea, intestinal worms, tooth decay, amoebae, fever, toothache, sexual impotence, gonorrhoea and syphilis. The results of the survey and observations made in the field showed that local people use non-timber forest products (roots, bark and leaves) in traditional medicine (to treat themselves). This information was provided by resource people (traditional healers) during the surveys. The greatest danger for this species lies in the destructive harvesting techniques used, which, by removing the various parts of these species in an anarchic manner, such as repeated uprooting and total debarking, and its illegal exploitation, undoubtedly contribute to the fragmentation of wild flora habitats. Table IV: Medicinal species. Species Diseases treated Use part Bibemi Rey-Bouba average/ standard deviation Acacia albida Rum bark 95,76 88,96 92,36±4,81 Acacia hockii Asthma, bronchitis, diarrhea, cough Root and bark 13,33 21,47 17,40±5,76 Acacia nilotica Asthma, cough, gastric, diarrhea, intestinal glass, toothache Fruit, bark et leaves 78,18 69,33 73,75±6,26 Adansonia digitata Diarrhea fruit pulp 40,61 55,21 47,91±10,33 Aloes vera Stomach aches, gastic, jaundice Whole plant 63,64 72,39 68,01±6,19 Annona senegalensis Fever, Gonococcal disease, Diarrhea, leaves, bark, racine, young shoot 35,15 47,85 41,50±8,98 Anogeissus leiocarpus Jaundice, fever Root and bark 38,18 52,15 45,16±9,88 Azadirachta indica Fever, malaria, stomach aches, AIDS leaves, seeds, the oil 75,76 62,58 69,17±9,32 Balanites aegyptiaca Diarrhea, stomach aches, amoebea, fever, toothache Fruits, seeds ,root and bark 40,61 55,83 48,22±10,76 Bombax costatum Diarrhea, fever Root and bark 33,33 37,42 35,38±2,89 Boscia senegalensis Sexual impotence, gastric, gonococcal disease, syphilis Root, leaves and bark 42,42 20,25 31,33±15,68 Burkea africana wound/injury Bark 56,97 66,26 61,61±6,57 Calotropis procera itching, wound Root, bark, seve 50,30 42,33 46,32±5,64 Combretum fragrans wound leaves, 55,15 48,47 51,81±4,73 Crossopteryx febrifuga Diarrhea, toothache Bark 31,52 52,15 41,83±14,59 Daniellia oliveri Migraine, ulcer, wound, toothache , menstrual disorders, bar, leaves 27,27 74,85 51,06±33,64 Detarium microcarpum Gonococcal disease, diarrhea bark, root 41,21 42,94 42,08±1,23 Diospyros mespiliformis Hémorrhages, cough, diarrhea, sexual weakness, bark, root and leaves 34,55 20,86 27,70±9,68 Ficus sycomorus Hyper tension Bark decoction 57,58 47,85 52,71±6,88 Gardenia aqualla Sore eyes Seve 40,00 83,44 61,72±30,71 Hyphaene thebaica Internal shock, Bilharzia, hyperTension bark, root and fruit. 13,94 53,99 33,96±28,32 Khaya senegalensis Jaundice, Dermatoses, stomach aches, diarrhea root decoction and the oil 97,58 96,93 97,25±0,45 Kigelia africana wound/injury Bark 0,00 77,91 38,96±55,09 Leptadenia hastata Diabète, hyper tension, sexual impotence, cough, diarrhea and fever Whole plant 38,18 26,99 32,59±7,91 Mangifera indica yeast, Rheumatism, Hémorrhoids… Bark decoction 60,00 42,94 51,47±12,06 Maytenus senegalensis wounds, dysentery, dental carrie, diarrhea Root ; bark 75,76 68,10 71,93±5,42 Moringa oleifera Typhoid, Diabete, Hyper tension, Shade-dried leavess and seeds 95,76 95,09 95,42±0,47 Nauclea latifolia Intestinal parasites, hernia, diarrhea Root, bark 0,00 12,27 6,13±8,68 Prosopis africana wounds, ulcer, rheumatism ,dental carrie, gastic Root and bark 23,03 26,38 24,71±2,37 Pterocarpus erunaceus cough, bronchitis, fever, dysentery, Anemia, stérility ulcer, wounds Root, bark 33,33 37,42 35,38±2,89 Sarcocephalus latifolius Dental carrie, stomach aches,jaundice bark, root 93,94 88,96 91,45±3,52 Sclerocarya birrea Diarrhea, cough Root and bark 41,82 49,08 45,45±5,13 Sterculia setigera anemia bark decoction 74,55 61,96 68,25±8,90 Stereospermum kunthianum Bilharzia, syphilis, gonococcal dieses, cough, diarrhea bark, root 46,67 34,36 40,51±8,71 Tamarindus indica Painful periods, cough Root, fruit 55,15 24,54 39,85±21,65 Vitellria paradoxa bilharzia, headaches, fever, cough Shea butter, bark decoction 40,00 43,56 41,78±2,52 Ximenia americana Tuberculosis bark, leaves 52,12 42,94 47,53±6,49 Ziziphus mauritiana Stomach aches, gastic Root decoction 83,03 71,78 77,40±7,96 3.3.3. Consumption of fuelwood and service wood Plant species most valued for fuelwood by the population People in the eastern part of the Benoué riverbank recognise that most species can be used for fuel. A total of 28 species are recognised as producing quality fuelwood in this locality. The species most in demand for fuelwood in terms of percentage of respondents include :Table V: Species used for fuelwood. Anogeissus leiocarpus (85,3 ± 10,48%), Piliostigma sp (64,5 ± 23,59), Azadirachta indica (69,8 ± 14,49), Combretum fragrans (75,6 ± 1,07), Ziziphus mauritiana (41,6 ± 37,15), Acacia sp. (68,0 ± 2,74), Terminalia glaucescens (66,2 ± 3,59), Combretum glutinosum (63,4 ± 5,72), Balanites aegyptiaca (43,5 ± 12,99), Khaya senegalensis (45,7 ± 8,23), Tamarindus indica (47,6 ± 0,41), Vitellaria paradoxa (32,9 ± 17,82), suivie de Isodoberlinia doka (30,1 ± 42,51). The high use of these species can be justified by the fact that they are fire-resistant and do not burn quickly. Their ability to withstand fire means that households can use them over a long period, thus saving time and energy in the search for firewood. The increased consumption of fuelwood could be due to the inaccessibility of other alternative energy sources, particularly oil and gas, which are difficult to access in rural areas. The anarchic exploitation of firewood shows a significant degree of fragmentation of the flora. Species Bibemi Rey-Bouba average/ standard deviation Anogeissus leiocarpus 92,73 77,91 85,3 ± 10,48 Combretum fragrans 76,36 74,85 75,6 ± 1,07 Azadirachta indica 80 59,51 69,8 ± 14,49 Acacia sp. 66,06 69,94 68,0 ± 2,74 Terminalia glaucescens 63,64 68,71 66,2 ± 3,59 Piliostigma sp 81,21 47,85 64,5 ± 23,59 Combretum glutinosum 59,39 67,48 63,4 ± 5,72 Ziziphus mauritiana 67,88 15,34 41,6 ± 37,15 Balanites aegyptiaca 52,73 34,36 43,5 ± 12,99 Khaya senegalensis 51,52 39,88 45,7 ± 8,23 Tamarindus indica 47,27 47,85 47,6 ± 0,41 Vitellaria paradoxa 45,45 20,25 32,9 ± 17,82 Entada africana 28,48 10,43 19,5 ± 12,76 Lonchocarpus laxiflorus 27,27 18,4 22,8 ± 6,27 ficus sycomorus 24,24 7,36 15,8 ± 11,94 Terminalia laxiflora 23,03 42,94 33,0 ± 14,08 Pterocarpus sp 21,82 32,52 27,2 ± 7,57 Steriospermum kuntianum 20 14,11 17,1 ± 4,16 Ficus platifilla 19,39 4,91 12,2 ± 10,24 Prosopis africana 19,39 26,99 23,2 ± 5,37 Sclerocarya birrea 4,85 28,22 16,5 ± 16,53 Parkea biglobossa 4,24 34,36 19,3 ± 21,30 Dalbergia melanoxylon 3,03 22,09 12,6 ± 13,48 Afzelia africana 0 28,22 14,1 ± 19,95 Daniellia oliveri 0 53,37 26,7 ± 37,74 Detarium microcarpum 0 40,49 20,2 ± 28,63 Isodoberlinia doka 0 60,12 30,1 ± 42,51 Lophira lanceolata 0 42,94 21,5 ± 30,36 Species most valued for charcoal making Carbonisation, or charcoal production, in this zone (Table VII) is only carried out by a limited number of farmers for whom this activity is generally secondary. The best charcoal is obtained from species whose wood is resistant to heat, so the species used to make charcoal are as follows: Anogeissus leiocarpus(88,41%), Terminalia spp(88,39 %), Pterocarpus sp(62,83 %), Vitellaria paradoxa( 57,82 %), Prosopis africana(47,85 %), Vitex sp(31,39 %), Khaya senegalensis (24,67 %), Balanites aegyptiaca (23,13 %). Charcoal remains a secondary source of energy, used occasionally, either when wood is in short supply or for specific uses such as heating tea, ironing clothes, etc. Table VI: Species most frequently used to make charcoal Species Bibemi Rey-Bouba average/ standard deviation Anogeissus leiocarpus 89,70 87,12 88,41 ± 1,82 Terminalia spp 92,12 84,66 88,39 ± 5,27 Pterocarpus sp 59,39 66,26 62,83 ± 4,85 Vitellaria paradoxa 74,55 41,10 57,82 ± 23,65 Prosopis africana 0,00 95,71 47,85 ± 67,67 Vitex sp 33,33 29,45 31,39 ± 2,75 Khaya senegalensis 29,09 20,25 24,67 ± 6,25 Balanites aegyptiaca 29,09 17,18 23,13 ± 8,42 Combretum fragrans 19,39 17,18 18,29 ± 1,57 Daniellia oliveri 0,00 23,31 11,66 ± 16,48 Lonchocarpus laxiflorus 13,33 4,91 9,12 ± 5,96 Detarium microcarpum 0,00 14,11 7,06 ± 9,98 Combretum glutinosum 10,91 1,84 6,37 ± 6,41 Acacia polyacantha 1,21 6,75 3,98 ± 3,91 Tamarindus indica 4,85 0,00 2,42 ± 3,43 Plant species used for Wood services. In addition to plant species used for food and medicinal purposes, the woody flora also grows a range of plant species for various traditional uses. The results of our survey confirmed this, giving a list of species used as building materials and to make various craft items (hats, tablecloths, mortars, pestles, handles, furniture, utensils, etc.). The parts harvested include the trunk, branches, leaves and bark. The table shows that, depending on the species, "Azadirachta indica (93.58%), Tamarindus indica (91.76%); Anogeissus leiocarpus (85.96%) Balanites aegyptiaca (83.83%) Pterocarpus sp. (78.99%) Diospyros mespiliformis (78.65%), Terminalia sp. (71.97%), Vitellaria paradoxa (71.30%) Isoberlinia doka (56%), Daniellia oliveri (31%), Afzelia africana (13%) are used as poles for building houses and sheds. As far as craft wood is concerned, it should be noted that the choice of species also takes into account the value placed on the object being made, depending on whether it is a mortar, pestle, tom-tom, stool or any other object. The analysis of variance shows that there is a highly significant difference between the species used as service wood (0.05 P). This exploitation shows the population's dependence on forest products. Repeated logging of these species undoubtedly contributes to their degradation and the decline in their populations in the wild. Table VII : Species used for service wood. Species % Respondents Bibemi % Respondents Rey-Bouba % average Azadirachta indica 96,36 90,80 93,58 Tamarindus indica 92,73 90,80 91,76 Anogeissus leiocarpus 87,88 84,05 85,96 Balanites aegyptiaca 86,06 81,60 83,83 Pterocarpus sp 75,15 82,82 78,
06Discussion
DISCUSSION Characterisation of stakeholders in the exploitation of forest products Stakeholders are the key elements in the exploitation of non-timber forest products. They control the circuit and flow of the distribution of these products. They are recruited at various levels of the social stratum and consist mainly of farmers and herders. The work of Sandjong et al (2013) and Kemeuze (2011) in the Far North of Cameroon is along the same lines and also certifies that farming and livestock rearing are the main daily activities of the population. Uses of products derived from plant species Plant species are used in different ways depending on the needs expressed by the population. Products from plant species are used for a number of purposes, including consumption of fruit, leaves, flowers and tubers; exploitation for firewood and charcoal; service wood, including species providing materials for the construction of sheds, the building of houses, the construction of buildings, etc.; and the production of foodstuffs. the roofs of houses and the frames of doors and windows; species used in crafts and in pharmacopoeia. Walter (2001); Elseed et al, (2002); Elfeel and Warrag, (2011); Chahad et al. (2015) attest that all parts of the plant (roots, leaves, fruit, bark, thorns, wood) are used for food, therapeutic, economic or socio-cultural purposes. Several plant species are used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments. All parts of the plant are used. Results relating to the use of plants in traditional pharmacopoeia are also reported by Dongock et al (2018) in the Moundou area of Chad, who state that Annona senegalensis and Mangifera indica are used respectively to treat arterial hypertension. Woody species also play an important role in crafts. Certain plant species are used to make certain objects, such as pestles, mortars, couscous turners, animal troughs, axe handles and stools. It should also be noted that the choice of species takes into account the value placed on the object being made, whether it is a mortar, pestle, tam-tam, stool or any other object. These selection criteria are reported by (Thiombiano et al., 2002), (Lykke et al., 2004), and (Bognounou, 2009). Still referring to the work of these authors, Anogeissus leiocarpus is preferred in construction for the hard consistency and resistance of its wood to termites. Piliostigma thonningii (60.90%) is used as rope. Nizesete (2013), in a similar vein, states that the flora is made up of a heterogeneous range of species, whose wood's diverse physical and mechanical potential allows it to be used for a variety of purposes, including exterior and interior architecture, kitchen utensils and small indoor furniture, agricultural tools and other everyday objects. Food use of ligneous species Food uses include species exploited for their fruit. Most of these fruits are eaten when ripe, whether fresh, dried, raw, cooked or processed, and consumers come from all social strata. The nutritional value of the fruit and its use in human nutrition are recognised by several authors (Mapongmetsem et al., 2012); (Froumsia, 2013), and (Hamawa, 2015); in the Sahelian zone. However (Kristensen and Balslev, 2003) in Gourounsi in Burkina Faso notes that the availability of most fruits coincides with the start of field work and the drop in food supplies. At this time, the availability and consumption of wild fruit makes a considerable contribution to household diets, since according to (Guinko and Pasgo, 1992), wild fruit contributes to a varied diet in terms of vitamins. Exploited seed species The consumption of raw or prepared seeds and the extraction of oil from the seeds of certain species are encountered daily by the population in rural areas. The use of the kernels and the oil extracted from the kernels of these species in human food is also reported by (Belge et al., 2006) and (Mohammed et al., 2002). This result also corroborates those of (Froumsia, 2013) who prove that the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca and Sclerocarya birrea are exploited for consumption and oil extraction. They are consumed directly after grinding of the lignified kernel (Sclerocarya birrea) or undergo treatment to make them edible (Balanites aegyptiaca) in the Kalfou reserve in Cameroon. Medicinal uses Several plant species are used by the local population in traditional medicine. The medicinal plants listed testify to the importance attached to pharmacopoeia by the local population. The high rate of use of these plant species could be due to their various curative virtues and their availability in the locality. These results corroborate those of Toirambe (2007), who shows that nature is endowed with a mosaic of medicinal plants that people can use for health care. He adds that, with the diversity of medicinal plants, everyone is their own therapist. Mapongmetsem et al (2006), in their study of the use of NTFPs in the SudanoGuinean savannahs, showed that there is a multitude of species of local and international importance. Consumption of fuelwood and service wood Most species can be used for fuel, but some produce quality fuelwood in this locality. Households remain highly dependent on fuelwood. Ali Madi et al (2003) support this finding, stating that the level of wood consumption, despite the use of other energy sources, remains high, making wood the dominant energy source in households. These results complement those obtained by Tchobsala (2011) in the peri-urban savannahs of Ngaoundéré, who showed that several species such as Annona senegalensis, Daniellia oliveri, Khaya senegalensis and Securidaca longepedunculata are used as fuelwood.
07Conclusion
The aim was to analyse the socio-economic importance of plant resources for the local population. Our various surveys showed that the majority of households surveyed were mainly involved in agriculture. The importance of plant resources for the population in this area is well established. As the population has grown, timber has been used for a number of purposes in people's daily lives. They are used for fuelwood, timber and services, traditional medicines, livestock feed and human consumption. Nowadays, because of their ever-increasing importance for food, socio-economic and therapeutic purposes, we need to campaign for the conservation of these species.
03References
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